International Financial Management

International Financial Management

• Introduction

We know that international business activity has been in existence for hundreds of years. More than two hundred years back. Adam Smith wrote in his famous title “Wealth of Nations” that if a foreign country can supply us with a commodity cheaper than we ourselves can make it, better buy it of them with some part of the produce of our own in which we have some advantage. The period after the World War II has seen a phenomenal growth in exchange of goods between nations. During this period, there has been a systematic effort to facilitate the free flow of goods and services across national boundaries. Rapid economic growth in the Western countries owed much to the relatively free flow of goods and services. Now, other countries have joined in this process and growth of international trade continues unabated. Pros and cons of this development are debated in different for all the time. Even disputes arise between nations. To resolve disputes and make further progress on free flow, the bodies like World Trade Organization [WTO] have come into existence. Despite the difficulties and road blocks, Integration of the world economy is moving forward. Fast means of communication have made the world a small village. No single nation can remain aloof today, without having to transact with others. Exchange of goods, services, financial resources. Technology and manpower [albeit to a limited extent] is the reality of today’s economic system. The world trade has in fact grown at a pace much faster than the world output. For several countries, the growth has been described as export oriented growth since the share of exports in their GDP is significantly high.

Even in case of India, the period after 1951 has been one of liberalization and integration with the world economy. The country followed, for very long time, the policy of import substitution and self-reliance. In Net, in the past, there used to be some sort of merit associated with the dictum, “Import and Perish“. Now there is implied virtue in the dictum. “Export and Prosper“. Now many countries like India, feel the need for increasing their share in international exchange of goods, services capital and technology. Some of the important steps taken over the period of last 15 years can be summarized as follows:

1. 1. Establishment of unified market determined exchange rate.
   2. Introduction of current account convertibility and phased introduction of capital account convertibility, which will lead to full convertibility in due course.
   3. Reduction in import duties.
   4. Liberalization of portfolio and foreign direct investment.

Over a period very large size business organizations have developed. Big multinational corporations (MNCs) have production and sales activities spread in many countries. About one thousand big multinationals are stated to be owning about half of the assets of the world economic system. Fast development of international movement of goods and investment was not possible without corresponding development or financial system. They had to go hand-in-hand. A sophisticated and well networked banking system and various financial products in the form of risk management tools and insurance are necessary to allow the momentum of growth to continue. The arrangements are needed to tide over short-term imbalances as and when they occur in any country or any part of the world.

The process of integration of the world economy has witnessed the creation of a very dynamic international financial market. A new field of finance namely financial engineering, has come into existence. The financial market of today offers a large variety of financial products for investment, speculation and risk management. The financial market with innovative products presents vast opportunities as well as unprecedented risks. Therefore, understanding operations in this market is a must for any finance manager, particularly the one dealing with international operations. Now, more and more companies are venturing into international operations in one form or another. Some may be doing only exports, others may be doing both exports and imports and still others may be doing exports, imports and investments. In order to be effective in managing the expanding cross-border activities, finance managers are required to have a good command on working of the financial markets, underlying which are sophisticated financial products. Theoretical basis for these products has to be clearly understood. The market dynamics of many of these products is such that a risk management product can turn into a big risk itself, if not understood properly or not dealt with due care.

 

• Multinational Corporation [MNC]

An MNC is a company engaged in making and selling its products in more than one country. It operates in other countries through subsidiary companies or branches. Unlike earlier days, the factors of production [Capital, Raw Material, Technology and Labor] tend to move from one place to another within a country as also from country to country in search of higher returns. Natural resources have their value but even more important are new technologies that give rise to genetic engineering and miniaturization. Capital as a resource is no longer monopoly of a nation state bound by geographical borders; it moves around the world. A typical MNC raises capital in several countries simultaneously or sequentially. Technologies may be developed in one country but used in different countries. Labor also, despite many restrictions, is becoming increasingly global. People move easily from one country to another to acquire new skills to use them in a third country. The ability of MNCs to use these globally available factors of production makes them competitive rather than the resource endowments of the parent country. The existence of an MNC is based on the international mobility of factors of production. An Indian parent company may raise finances in the US capital market to use it to acquire a company in Malaysia and sell the products of this acquired company in Latin American countries. Part of the labor force employed in the Malaysian subsidiary may come from other South East Asian countries such as Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand etc. In today’s context, development of design and other software can be done in far-off locations and used in other corner of the world as these travel with the speed of light on information networks. Value addition in products takes place at different locations in different countries before they are finally consumed.

Beginning in 1980s and accelerating from 1990s onwards, the world has witnessed some fundamental evolution on technological, regulatory and economic policy fronts. Some of the elements of this evolution are:

1. 1. A large scale deregulation, cutting down the system of licenses and permits.
   2. Substantial reduction in public sector enterprises and increase in privatization.
   3. Increased development and use of information technology.
   4. A large numbers of mergers, takeovers and buyouts of corporate entities to have better structure and control.
   5. An increasing and more visible adoption of free-market policies in the developing countries etc.

This process has brought about competition in all sorts of activities be they manufacturing selling or providing services. The business organizations have been investing heavily in new technologic and developing new strategies in order to gain in productivity as well as expand their markets. MNCs are the main entities to induce competition across the world. They do so by allocating resources globally in an optimal manner. They make decision on the aspects such as ownership, production, financing and marketing with a single aim as to what is best for the corporation as a whole. The emphasis is on group performance rather than the achievements of individual subsidiaries.

As of now there are many MNCs with their headquarters in the USA or in Europe or in Japan. But gradually, MNCs of other countries are taking shape. Some of the well known American MNCs are: Coca-Cola, Colgate-Palmolive, Compaq. Dow Chemical and IBM etc. Coca-Cola earns more than three-fourths of its revenues from outside the USA. As a matter of fact, earning more than half of their revenues outside the parent country is a norm for a large majority of MNCs. Yet, one can come across vast differences in the extent to which foreign operations are of importance to MNCs. For example, General Motors generates its revenues abroad in much greater proportions than its counterparts, Ford and Chrysler Internationalization of certain industry groups or some companies is mind boggling. For example, a film was made by a Hungarian-Born producer, directed by a Dutch, starred an Austrian hero and a Canadian villain, shot in Mexico and distributed by a studio of Hollywood, which was owned by a Japanese.

If we look at the evolution of the goals of MNCs, they can be seen evolving on the path of raw-material seekers, then market seekers and cost minimizers. The raw material seekers were the earliest ones. They grew under the protection of various empires such as British, French, and Dutch. The modern counterparts of those multinationals of colonial period are some of the big oil and mining companies. Some examples of these 20th century MNCs are British Petroleum, Standard Oil, International Nickel etc. But more typical of today’s MNCs are those that go abroad to seek larger markets. Several names can be cited of market seekers. Some are Unilever, IBM, MacDonald’s and Coca-Cola etc. Most of the market seekers maintain vast manufacturing, marketing and distribution networks, spread over several countries. The third category, viz, cost minimizers, is fairly recent development. The MNCs of this category invest in lower cost production sites such as China, Taiwan, Hongkong and India etc. But with time, such categorization is becoming blurred as also the direction of investment flows. Earlier, flows were from US to other countries, then came European and Japanese MNCs and now onwards, MNCs of other countries are also developing.

 

• Steps In Internationalization

It has been seen that firms become multinationals through a gradual process. A firm tries to exploit factor advantages internationally and to attempt to reduce the competitive threats by others. Companies gradually increase their commitment to international business. The sequence normally involves exporting, setting up an international operations department, establishing a marketing subsidiary, entering into licensing agreements and eventually creating facilities for manufacturing abroad. It is not necessary that all companies follow this evolutionary process. This process represents a sequence of moving from a relatively low-risk, low-return, export-based strategy to a higher-risk, higher-return, production-based strategy.

Starting the internationalization process from exports has certain advantages. Capital needed is low, risk is low and profits are immediate. This phase provides an opportunity to the exporting firm to learn about demand conditions, competitors, financial system abroad and payment and hedging techniques etc. As the learning process matures, companies expand their marketing and start dealing with foreign distributors leading to setting up of new service facilities and warehouses.

The advantage of creating manufacturing base abroad is that the MNC will be able to realize full sales potential of its product. This enables the firm to keep abreast with newer developments in the market demand, to meet the customer needs faster, to provide better after-sales service and to keep track of the competition which can be outwitted with innovation and R&D efforts. Most firms selling in foreign markets eventually start manufacturing abroad. Foreign production may cover a wide variety of activities such as packaging, finishing, assembling or full manufacture.

When an MNC sets up production facility abroad, one of the important decisions it is confronted with is whether to create its own affiliate or to acquire a going concern. The advantage of acquisition is that the local firm provides readily available marketing network. Larger and more experienced firms use acquisition route less often than smaller and relatively less experienced ones. At times, of course, a parent may not have a choice to acquire abroad simply because there is no local firm available having special technology or equipment needed to manufacture its product.

MNCs also use licensing agreements as an alternative to setting up manufacturing facilities. In return they receive royalties and other forms of payments. Licensing has the advantage of smaller investment requirement, faster market entry and lower financial risk. But there are disadvantages associated with licensing. The licensee may turn into a competitor in due course. Besides, the licensor gets lower revenue stream and may find it difficult to maintain quality standards.

 

• International Financial Management

The main objective of international financial management is to maximize shareholder wealth. This would require making sound investment and financing decisions that would result in adding value to the firm. One of the main reasons for focusing on shareholder wealth is that the companies who do not do so may be taken over by others. If the shareholder wealth is maximized or, in other words, if share price is made to go up hostile takeover becomes difficult and costly. Also, it becomes easier for a company to attract additional capital from the investors if it cares for increasing shareholder wealth. Companies which create more value will have more money to distribute to all stakeholders not only shareholders be they employees, managers or other beneficiaries in the society. It has been argued, and very rightly so, that maximizing shareholder wealth is not the best way but the only way to benefit all stakeholders.

Traditionally financial management is separated into two basic functions. The first is concerned with acquisition of funds, also known as financing decision. This function involves generating funds from internal as well as external sources. The effort is to get funds at the lowest cost possible. The second, that is, investment decision is concerned with deployment of the acquired funds in a manner so as to maximize shareholder wealth. Other decisions relate to dividend payment, working capital and capital structure etc. In addition, risk management involves both financing and investment decision.

A finance manager in an MNC faces many challenges that his counterpart in a domestic firm does not encounter. These challenges include political risks leading to expropriation or confiscation of assets, exchange rate risk, control on repatriation of profits, different tax laws, multiple money markets and different interest rates etc. MNCs and their financial managers have to be abreast with the changes taking place all the time and develop ways to take advantages of the changes while reducing risks that these changes create. They have operations in different countries. This gives them opportunity to access segmented capital markets to lower their overall cost of capital. They can shift profits to lower the tax outflows. They have ability to move people, money and material on a global basis to derive the maximum advantage out of these resources. They are able to practice the economic adage, “do not put all your eggs in one basket“. International diversification of markets and production facilities reduces their risk. Operating globally gives MNCs continuous access to information on the latest process technologies and latest R&D activities of their competitors. They are able to access world’s capital markets and thus diversify their funding sources.

International finance manager has to analyze and balance international risks and advantages. Some of the key challenges he must be prepared to face are listed hereunder:

• • To understand the interrelationship between environmental changes and corporate response. For example, how will the credit conditions be impacted by stock market crash? How will defaults by some debtor countries affect funding ability in the international capital market?
  • To understand the development and use of new instruments such as options, forwards futures and swaps for effective management.
  • To develop ways to minimize risks through internal and external techniques.
  • To take a balanced view of successes and failures, treating them as experiences to learn from. Decisions such as taking loan in a currency that has started appreciating fast, taking a fixed rate financing when rates have started going down will have an adverse impact and impel finance manager to contain the damage to the extent possible.

International Financial Management Will Involve The Study Of

1. 1. Exchange rate and currency markets.
   2. Theory and practice of estimating future exchange rate.
   3. Various risks such as political/country risk, exchange rate risk and interest rate risk.
   4. Various risk management techniques.
   5. Cost of capital and capital budgeting in international context.
   6. Working capital management.
   7. Balance of payment.
   8. International financial institutions etc.

 

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