Organic Farming: Seeds And Sowing/Planting

Cereals And Millets

• Rice

Seed Treatment: Seed treatment is an essential component in organic farming. The treatment protects against insect pest attacks and helps the establishment of healthy seedlings. We should use the following methods and inputs for the seed treatment in different crops:

By Cow Dung: Soak the seeds in a mixture of 1 kg each of cow dung, cow urine and water [1 liter] and 100 g of cow’s ghee for 10 minutes. The seeds are shade dried for 6 -10 hours.

By Neem Seed Kernel Extract: About 25 kg shade dried neem seeds kernel is crushed and the coarse powder is tied in a cotton cloth and immersed in 50 liters of water overnight. The next morning, the cloth containing the soaked seeds is squeezed to separate the extract. Again the remaining neem seeds are dipped in 50 liters of water and extracted completely. This extract is coated over the paddy seeds. The seeds should be dried in shade for 6 hours before sowing.

By Biofertilizers: Azospirillum, Azotobacter and phosphobacteria are the common biofertilizers used for paddy. For seed treatment, 200 g of Azospirillum is suspended in one liter of water. This mixture is sprinkled over 25 kg of seed spread on a clean surface and mixed thoroughly to coat uniformly. If Azotobacter is available, 750 g of Azotobacter is mixed in one liter of water and the slurry is uniformly coated over the seeds needed for one hectare. Phosphobacteria at the rate of 1.25 kg dissolved in 5 liters of water may also be used. This paste is uniformly coated over the seeds. The treated seeds should be dried in shade and sown within six hours of treatment.

Seedling Dip: The seedlings before transplanting may also be treated with biofertilizers. Azospirillum at the rate of 150 g is mixed in 20 liters of water and roots of the seedlings are dipped in the mixture for ten minutes. Two and a Half kilograms of Azospirillum will be sufficient to treat the seedlings needed for one hectare. If Azotobacter is available, 600 g Azotobacter inoculants are mixed in 20 liters of water and then the seedlings are dipped in the slurry for 5 minutes.

Methods Of Sowing:

Broadcasting Or Direct Seeding: The seeds are broadcasted after ploughing the field to a proper tilth. The seeds may be mixed with the soil with the help of a local plough or disc harrow. About 100 kg seed per hectare is sufficient.

Sowing Behind The Plough Or Drilling: In this method, the seed is sown with a seed drill or behind the plough with the help of a funnel in the rows. The row to row distance should be 20 cm. About 60 kg seed is sufficient for one hectare.

Transplanting: In areas where there is an assured water supply, a nursery may be raised and the seedlings are transplanted at the proper age.

System Of Rice Intensification [SRI] Technique: The system of rice intensification is gaining popularity now. This technique was originated in Madagascar. Under the SRI system, 6 to 8 kg rice seed is sufficient for planting a one-hectare area. The nursery size should be kept at 90 to 120 m² [L×W]. The seed-bed is prepared on a raised bed in the main field itself. Compost or organic manure at the rate of 1kg/m² is mixed into the soil in the seed-bed during final ploughing. As an alternative, seedlings can also be raised on a plastic sheet by spreading compost and top soil mixed in equal proportion to 1-2 cm thickness. The seeds are soaked in water for 12 hours and kept in wet gunny bags for another 24 hours to initiate germination. For protecting the seedlings against diseases, Pseudomonas Fluorescens [4g/liter] should be mixed with water used for soaking the seeds. The germinating seeds are broadcasted into the seed-bed at the rate of 200 g per 3 m² and then the seeds are covered with a fine layer of soil. The seed-bed is irrigated daily in the evening with light sprinkle. After 8 to 12 days, vigorous and healthy seedlings are ready for transplanting.

While transplanting, only one seedling should be used per hill. The seedlings should be lifted gently from the seed-bed and should be transplanted immediately. The root damage should be minimized. The seedlings should not be beaten or washed in water to remove the soil as practiced traditionally. Seedlings should be placed 1 to 2 cm deep into the muddy soil. A spacing of 25 x 25 cm should be adopted. If needed, it may be increased to 30 x 30 cm or to 40 x 40 cm.

• Wheat

The optimum sowing time of wheat varies widely over the growing areas. It depends upon [1] type of variety, [2] weather conditions, [3] soil temperature, [4] irrigation facilities and [5] land preparation.

In general, the maximum productivity potential of promising wheat varieties under irrigated conditions is attained by sowing them between 10th and 25th November in all the climatic zones other than the peninsular zone. Rainfed wheat is generally sown during the second fortnight of October to early November. Under specific circumstances, wheat is sown in the month of December too. In late sown wheat, only short duration varieties should be used.

Seed Rate And Spacing

Seed rate varies with the variety used. It also depends upon seed size, germination percentage, tillering ability, time of sowing, moisture content in the soil and method of sowing. Usually, a seed rate of 100 kg per hectare is sufficient for normal sowing. For varieties with bold grains like Sonalika under late sown conditions, seed rate should be increased to 125 kg per hectare. In case wheat is to be sown by dibbler, a seed rate of 25 to 30 kg per hectare is sufficient. For normal sown crop, a spacing of 20 to 22.5 cm between two rows is recommended. When sowing is delayed, a closer spacing of 15 to 18 cm should be adopted.

Methods Of Sowing

1- Broadcasting: The seeds are broadcasted and then mixed in the soil using harrows. Generally, uniform seed distribution cannot be achieved leading to irregular plant stand and poor germination. When the broadcasted seeds are not covered properly, they are picked up by birds resulting in wastage of seeds. Hence, this method is generally discouraged.

2- Behind Local Plough: The seeds are dibbled by hand into the furrows that are opened with the plough. This is called the ‘kera’ [hand] method. When it is dropped through a Pora or Nai or Hazara, a special attachment with local plough, it is called the ‘Pora’ method. The seeds are dropped at a depth of 5 to 6 cm. The germination is satisfactory under this method of sowing.

3- Drilling: Before sowing the seeds by drilling, the seed-bed should be thoroughly prepared. It should be well levelled free from clods and weeds. The seeds are sown by seed drilling at a uniform depth. It results in uniform germination and regular stand.

4- Dibbling: When there is limited seed availability, this method is used for sowing. Dibblers have a wooden or iron frame with pegs. The frame is pressed in the field and lifted and then one or two seeds are dropped by hand in each of the holes. It is a time-consuming process.

5- Zero Tillage Technique: This method is useful under the “rice-wheat” cropping system. After harvesting of rice crop, the field requires at least 6-8 tillage operations [ Ploughing and Harrowing ] to make the field ready for sowing of wheat.

A zero-till-seed drill machine is used for direct sowing of wheat in rice fields without field preparation. This helps in advancing of the sowing of wheat.

Under zero tillage, there should be proper moisture in the field at the time of sowing. The rice crop should be harvested close to the ground. The field should be free from weeds. Sowing depth of about 5 to 6 cm should be maintained. Light plank may be used behind the machine.

 

• Maize

The maize seed should be planted at a distance of 20-25 cm between plant to plant in a row and rows should have a distance of 60 cm. The seeds are sown at a depth of 3-5 cm. Ten to twenty per cent more seeds than the desired plant population would be normally required to compensate for various field losses. A seed rate of around 20 kg per hectare should be used.

Planting on the side of a ridge is adopted in high rainfall areas. Planting is done in narrow furrows in low rainfall areas. Under normal conditions, the planting is done in a flat bed. In areas that face heavy storms during the rainy season, planting on flat beds followed by earthing up after 40-50 days is recommended.

Date of planting differs from place to place. However, the following guidelines have to be observed in choosing the date in the case of Kharif maize.

In areas with irrigation facilities, planting is taken up two weeks before the onset of the monsoon. In rainfed situations, the sowing of maize is done with the onset of rains. Sowing should be done through maize planter or seed drill or manually behind the country plough in furrows.

 

• Sorghum [Jowar]

A seed rate of 12-15 kg seed per hectare is sufficient to ensure a good stand of the crop. The seeds are sown in rows 45 cm apart with a plant to plant distance of 12 cm and at a depth of 3-4 cm.

Jowar is sown either by broadcasting or in rows behind the plough. In northern India, jowar is sown only during the Kharif season. In irrigated, areas, the first week of July has been found suitable for the sowing of improved varieties. Under unirrigated conditions, sowing should be done preferably within a week after the onset of the first monsoon showers. Rabi sowing is done mainly in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Rabi sowing should be done after the second fortnight of September to the middle of October. Summer crop of jowar is sown in the month of January and February in irrigated areas of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Karnataka.

 

• Bajra [Pearl Millet]

About 5 kg seed of pearl millet is sufficient for one-hectare area. A spacing of 45 cm between rows and 10-12 cm between plants is followed. Seeds are sown at a depth of 2 to 3 cm. Bajra is generally sown behind plough or by broadcast method. As these methods are not efficient, use of bajra seed drill is recommended. It ensures better seed germination and uniform plant population.

Bajra is a predominantly rainfed crop. However, it can be raised round the year in areas of assured water supply. In most of the states, bajra is sown during June-July.

If timely sowing of bajra cannot be done, transplanting may be adopted. Transplanted crop matures earlier produces more tillers and ear-heads. About 2 kg of seed is sown in 200 square meter nursery mixed with area organic manure to get seedlings for one hectare. The seeds are sown in flatbeds [1.20-metre x 7.50 meter] in row of 10 cm apart and at 1.5cm depth. The seedling are uprooted and transplanted after three weeks. While uprooting the seedlings, keep the nursery wet to avoid root injury. Transplant one seedling per hill in rows keeping 50 cm space between rows and 10 cm space between plants in a row.

 

• Barley

For sowing of barley in rainfed and saline areas, the seeds are soaked in water overnight. In such areas, sowing should be done in the third and fourth week of October. In irrigated areas, sowing should be done during first and second week of November.

In irrigated areas, for normal sowing 75 kg seed of barley per hectare is sufficient while in late sown conditions, seed rate should be increased to 100 kg. Under rainfed condition, 75 to 100 kg and for saline soils, 100 kg of seeds per hectare is required.

For irrigated barley crops, a spacing of 22.5cm between two-row is recommended. Sowing should be done at a depth of 4 to 5cm. For rainfed crops, a spacing of 23 to 25cm between rows is recommended. Sowing should be done at a depth of 6 to 8cm depending upon soil moisture.

Seeds are dropped with the help of ‘Pora’ or ‘Nai’ attached to a local plough, or with the help of a seed drill. In irrigated areas, seeds are sown by the ‘Kera’ method. In “Kera” method, the seeds are dropped by hand into the furrow.

 

• Finger Millet [Mandua]

The irrigated crop of finger millet is sown in more than one season in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. The rainfed early crop is sown in April or early May. Kharif season main crop is sown during May or June. If the rains are not received in time, the sowing is shifted further up to the end of August. However, sowing should be done early in rainfed conditions to avoid moisture stress at a critical stage i.e. flowering. In areas, where irrigation facilities are inadequate, the sowing should be done soon after the onset of the monsoon. In the higher hills of North India, the optimum time of sowing for Mandua is the first fortnight of June. The irrigated crop in Rabi season in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh is sown during September and October.

Normally, 8 to 10 kg seed is required for one hectare area underline sowing. When crop is raised by transplanting, 4 kg seed is sufficient for raising a nursery.

It is beneficial to sow Mandua 3 to 4 cm deep. Line to line distance of 20 to 25cm and plant to plant distance of 8 to 10 cm are considered ideal. In areas with adequate moisture, Mandua can be raised by transplanting. Seed should be sown in well prepared nursery beds during the month of May-June. Three to four weeks old seedlings should be transplanted in the main field. Before uprooting the seedlings, the nursery should be irrigated. Field should be well prepared before transplanting. Two seedlings per hill at a distance of 25 x 8 cm or 20 x 10 cm may be transplanted at a depth of 2 to 3cm. The beds should be irrigated on the third day after transplantation. In the absence of timely rains, the transplanted field should be irrigated regularly till the seedlings are well established.

 

• Proso Millet [Cheena] And Barnyard Millet [Sawan]

As a Kharif crop, Proso millet should be sown in the first fortnight of July with the onset of monsoon and as a summer crop during the middle of April. During summer, it would be desirable to sow Cheena after harvesting the Rabi crop.

Proso millet can be sown by broadcasting or by drilling seeds in furrows 3 to 4 cm deep. Row to row distance should be kept 25 cm and plant to plant 10 cm. Line sowing ensures better germination, cut down seed requirement and facilitates intercultural operations compared to broadcasting. Depending upon the method of sowing, about 12 kg of seed is required for sowing of one hectare.

Barnyard millet can be sown during the first fortnight of July with the onset of monsoon. The seeds are broadcasted or drilled in furrows at a depth of 3 to 4 cm and a row spacing of 25 cm. The seed rate of 8 to 10 kg is sufficient for a one hectare area. Transplanting is also done in some places in Maharashtra. In flood affected areas, it is sown with the first shower, broadcast method and harvested before the occurrence of flood.

 

• Kodo And Kakun

Sowing time for Kodo is between June 15 and July 15 in northern India. In the south, it is mostly grown as a rainfed crop from September to December. Kodo millet is sown at a depth of 3 to 4 cm deep, with line spacing of 40 to 45 cm and plant to plant distance of 8 to 10 cm. The seed rate required is 10 to 15 kg per hectare.

An early crop of Kakun is sown in May, the main crop in June-July and the late crop in August. In areas of assured water supply, summer crop is sown from February to March. Optimum time of sowing of Kakun in Tamil Nadu is August to September for rainfed crops and June to July for irrigated ones. In Madhya Pradesh, it is grown as a rainfed crop. The crop is generally sown in rows at 25 to 30 cm distance. Seeds should be sown in furrows 2 to 3 cm deep. Eight to ten kg seed is sufficient for sowing of one hectare.

 

Pulses And Oilseeds

• Chickpea

Second fortnight of October is the optimum time for sowing of the chickpea in most of the chickpea growing areas of northern India. For peninsular India, first fortnight of October is the best time. Delay beyond this period results in a conspicuous reduction in the yield. Under humid subtropical condition of Tarai, first fortnight of November is the most suitable period. The crop may be sown by seed-drill or behind local plough at a row spacing of 30 to 45cm. A seed rate of 75 to 100 kg per hectare is sufficient. The seed should be placed at a depth of 8 to 10 cm.

 

• Lentil

Middle of October is the most suitable time for sowing the lentil. Sowing should be done in rows made at 30 cm apart. This could be done either by using a seed drill or by seeding behind the desi [country] plough. The optimum seed rate for the normal sown crop is 30 to 40 kg per hectare. Seed rate should be increased to 50 to 60 kg per hectare in case of late sowing. Row spacing should also be reduced to 20 to 25 cm in case of late sown crop. Lentil seeds should be sown at a depth of 3 to 4 cm.

 

• Field Pea

Second fortnight of October is the optimum time for sowing of field peas in north India. Seeds are sown at the rate of 60 to 80 kg per hectare with a spacing of 30 cm between rows. The optimum time for sowing of garden peas [vegetable purpose] is first fortnight of November in northern India. The early maturing varieties are given closer spacing and higher seed rates while the late maturing varieties are given wider spacing and lower seed rates. In the case of early maturing dwarf varieties, crop should be sown in rows 20 cm apart and 100 to 125 kg seed is required per hectare. In late maturing and taller varieties, a row spacing of about 30 cm is optimum. The seed rate should be reduced to 75 to 80 kg per hectare. Sowing of pea should be done when the daily maximum temperature is below 30°C and the daily minimum temperature comes down to 20°C.

 

• Pigeon Pea [Arhar]

Pigeon pea should be sown during the first fortnight of June. Under rainfed condition, sowing could be done with the onset of monsoon during the later part of June or early July. Seed should be sown behind the plough or with the help of seed drill at a spacing of 60 to 75 cm between rows and 15 to 20 cm between plants. A seed rate of 12 to 15 kg per hectare is sufficient. In mixed cropping, seed rate is adjusted according to the proportion of Arhar and companion crops to be grown. In the intercropping, seed rate remains same as for the pure crop.

 

• Green Gram [Mung] And Black Gram [Urd]

In Kharif season, sowing of green gram is done with the onset of monsoon. In central and southern India [Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa] mung is sown during October to November as a Rabi crop. In Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Bihar and West Bengal, mung is grown an irrigated crop during the summer season. Sowing is done from the middle of March to middle of April.

During Kharif season, 12 to 15 kg of seeds per hectare should be sown in rows 45 cm apart while during Rabi and summer season 20 kg of seeds per hectare should be sown in rows 30 cm apart. Sowing can also be done behind the local plough or with the help of seed drill. It is desirable to treat the seeds with Rhizobium culture.

During Kharif season, sowing of black gram is done with the onset of monsoon. A 12 to 15 kg of seed is sufficient for one hectare. A wider spacing is adopted wherein the furrows are opened at a distance of 45 cm.

Sowing could be done from the third week of February to first week of April when Black gram is raised as a summer crop. About 20 to 25 kg seed is required for one hectare. The furrows are opened at a distance of 20 to 25 cm. Seed drills could be used for this purpose. Seed should be inoculated with Rhizobium culture before sowing.

 

• Cowpea And Soybean

Suitable time for sowing of cowpea crops is March to April. The sowing for Kharif cowpea starts from middle of June and extends up to the end of July. In hills, this crop is sown in April to May. For green manuring, the crop should be sown from middle of June to first week of July.

For grain or vegetable purposes, 20 to 25 kg seed is required for sowing of one hectare pure crop. For mixed cropping, the seed rate is reduced proportionately. For fodder or green manure purpose, the seed rate should be 35 to 45 kg per hectare.

The row spacing of 35 to 45 cm and plant to plant distance of 8 to 10 cm may be maintained for Kharif planting. The row spacing in summer planting should be 25 to 30 cm as the plants do not grow much. The crop can be sown either with the drill or behind a local plough.

In northern India, soybean can be sown from the third week of June to first fortnight of July. The sowing should be done with a row spacing of 45 to 60 cm and plant to plant spacing of 4 to 5 cm, with the help of seed drill or behind the plough. The depth of sowing should not be more than 3 to 4 cm. About 70 to 80 kg seed is required for one hectare. If raised as a late sown crop, the seed rate should be 100 to 120 kg per hectare. Soybean seeds should be inoculated with suitable strain of Bradyrhizobium japonicum for biological fixation of atmospheric nitrogen at the rate of 0.5 kg per 70 kg seed.

 

• Groundnut

There are two types of groundnut viz., bunch type and spreading type. For bunch types, the row to row space is 30 to 40 cm and for spreading type, it is 45 to 60 cm. Plant to plant distance should be kept at 15 cm for bunch type and 20 cm for spreading type. The seed rate per hectare for bunch type is 80 to 100 kg and for spreading type, it is 60 to 80 kg. Sowing is done at a depth of 5 cm using the country plough, dibbler or seed planter.

 

• Rapeseed And Mustard

Usually it is recommended that the seed rate of 5 to 6 kg is sufficient for one hectare area when grown as pure crop and 1.5 to 2 kg seed per hectare for a mixed crop. Sowing is done either behind the plough or through seed drill. The spacing between plants is 10 to 15 cm and the spacing between rows varies from 30 cm to 45 cm.

 

• Sunflower

The seed rate for sunflower is 8 to 10 kg per hectare. The seeds are sown at a depth of 3 to 4 cm. The spacing recommended is 60 cm between rows and 20 cm between plants.

 

Cotton And Sugarcane

• Cotton

There are two types of cotton American and Desi. The seed rate varies with the types of cotton being cultivated. A seed rate of 15 to 25 kg per hectare for American cotton and 10 to 18 kg per hectare for desi cotton is recommended. We should maintain a spacing of 60 cm between two rows and 45 cm between plants in a row for American cotton and a spacing of 60 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants for desi cotton. The seed should be placed at a depth of 4 to 5 cm and covered with a thin layer of soil. Line sowing with seed drill is recommended.

 

• Sugarcane

The planting material for the sugarcane is called sett. The top one third to half portion of a cane which has buds of high viability is the best for preparing the setts. The seed cane should be 10 to 12 months old. About 35,000 to 40,000 setts are needed to plant a one hectare area. The setts of 30 to 45 cm length with three buds are normally used. Sugarcane is planted at a distance of 75 to 90 cm in either shallow furrows [flat planting] opened by local plough or deep furrows opened by ridger. In case of trench planting, trenches are formed with help of a ridger or by manual labor.

 

Fruits And Vegetables

Mango saplings are planted in pits of 0.9 x 0.9 x 0.9 m with a spacing of 7 to 10 m. For dwarf hybrids, a closer spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m or 5 x 5 m is recommended.

For citrus group of trees, pits of having size of 75 x 75 x 75 cm are dug out with a spacing of 5 x 5 m for lime, 6 x 6 m for lemon, grape fruit and mandarins and 7 x 7 m for sweet oranges. Seedlings raised vegetatively or through seeds are used for planting.

Banana is propagated by suckers. Well developed suckers having narrow sword shaped leaf blades [sword suckers] should be selected and used for planting.

Pits of 45 cm depth are prepared and filled with top soil mixed with 10 kg of farm yard manure before planting of the suckers.

Grapes are another category of plant propagated vegetatively. Rooted stem cuttings of 20 to 30 cm length with 3 to 4 buds are used for propagation. Pits of 1 x 1 x 1 m size are dug at a spacing of 3 x 5 m for Muscat variety, 5 x 5 m for Thomson Seedless and 6 x 6 m for Anab-e-Shahi.

Papaya is propagated by raising saplings in the nursery. The matured saplings are planted in the size of the pit of 45 x 45 x 45 cm with a spacing of 1.8 m apart, either way are used to accommodate 3000 papaya plants per hectare. In each pit, 2 to 3 seedlings per hole at 30 cm apart are planted. When they reach the flowering phase, one male tree for every 15 to 20 female trees is retained. The other male trees are removed.

Direct sown crops like okra, lablab, French bean, cluster beans, and cowpea can be sown on one side of the ridge at a spacing of 30 cm. Amaranthus should be sown after mixing one part of seeds with 20 parts of fine sand by broadcasting in the plots. Small onion, mint and coriander can be planted or sown along the bunds of plots and edges of the path.

Seeds of transplanted crops like tomato, brinjal, chili and big onion can be sown in nursery beds one month in advance by forming shallow lines in the soil. After sowing, seeds should be covered with top soil. Seedlings are removed from the nursery after 30 days in the case of tomato and after 40 to 45 days in the case of brinjal, chili and onion. Tomato, brinjal and chili seedlings are transplanted along one side of the ridge prepared at a spacing of 30 to 45 cm and the seedlings of onion are planted on both sides of the ridges at a spacing of 10 cm.

Trailing crops should be planted on the soil surface. These crops include ash gourd, pumpkin and bottle gourd. Their seed should be sown in the pits at the rate of 2 to 3 seeds per pit. The cucumber should be sown at a seed rate of 2 kg per hectare with five seeds per pit. The seed of watermelon 3 to 4 kg per hectare. After germination, the seedlings are thinned to three per pit. For Gherkins, two seeds per hole are dibbled at a depth of 1 cm and the holes are placed at a spacing of 45 cm apart.

For planting of the cabbage in one hectare area, a nursery bed of 60 to 80 m² should be prepared. The seed rate is 300 to 500g per hectare and sown at a depth of 1.5 to 2 cm with 5 to 7 cm spacing. Seedlings of 4 to 6 weeks old are planted at a distance of 60 x 30 cm or 45 x 45 cm for an early crop, 60 x 45 cm for mid season crop and 60 x 60 cm for late crop. If direct sown, cabbage seeds are sown in the hills with a spacing of 60 x 30 cm at the rate of two seeds per hill. In the case of cauliflower, seed requirement for early crop is 500 to 800 g per hectare and for the mid and late crops, it is 300 to 400g. Seeds are sown on nursery beds and are then covered with grass mulch. After 3 to 4 weeks, seedlings are planted in the main field at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm or 60 x 45 cm.

For carrot sowing, 5 to 6 kg seed is sufficient for one hectare area. The seeds are small in size. So it is recommended that the seeds should be mixed with sand and then sown on the ridges or on flat land by opening furrows with a spacing of 30 to 40 cm. Radish is sown directly in the field at a depth of 1.25 cm and a spacing of 6 – 8 cm between plants and 30 to 40 cm between rows is followed. The seed rate recommended per hectare is 8 to 10 kg for tropical types and 10 – 12 kg for temperate types.

Potato is grown from tubers. One should always prefer cut tubers with at least one eye is used. The cut pieces should be cured at 10 – 15⁰C and 85 to 95% Relative Humidity for 4 – 6 days. The quantity of seed tuber required for planting one hectare land is 1500 to 2000 kg. The tubers can be planted at a spacing of 60 x 15 cm either in ridges and furrows or in flat beds.

Tapioca is an important crop used for various purposes in south India. It is basically a rhizome crop. It is propagated by setts. Setts are prepared from the middle portion of fully matured plants. Each sett should have 5 to 6 buds. The basal ends of the setts can be dipped in a solution of Azospirillum culture, [30g in one liter of water] for 20 minutes and planted with correct polarity.

Garlic is an important member of spice crops. We use it daily in our culinary preparations. It is vegetatively propagated by cloves. A quantity of 500 to 600 kg of cloves per hectare is required for planting at a spacing of 15 x 10 cm.

Perennial vegetables like curry leaf, moringa, sesbania, chekurmanis etc., are planted in pits of size 45 cm x 45cm x 45cm dug at a spacing of 2m pit to pit.